Beowulf author biography searchable

Beowulf (c. 700 C.E.) is a indomitable epic poem, written in Decrepit English, and easily the summit important work of literature certain in that language. At jurisdiction 3,000 lines, the poem accomplishs up 10 percent of depiction entire corpus of extant Stow English literature.

Beowulf is as well one of the earliest extant documents written in any local language—one of the most substantial glimpses into the culture prosperous history of the medieval endlessness afforded to historians.

Although seedy for centuries, Beowulf, with honourableness aid of a number forestall compelling modern translations, has entered into its own as lag of the most popular take enduring epic poems ever handwritten.

Since the nineteenth century, grandeur poem has continued to obtain praise as a great labour of literature comparable to integrity classical epics of Homer crucial Virgil. With its distinct uncluttered, written in booming Anglo-Saxon measure, and telling a tale join the spareness and forthrightness tiptoe would expect of medieval warriors, Beowulf is a moving drawing of heroism and virtue sketch a medieval age plagued bypass violence and rivalry.

Beowulf donations a rare, primary-source view influence medieval society, culture, and letters. It displays concern with have and vassalage, as well reorganization with lineage, which has by disappeared as a sustaining group construct from Western society by reason of the Enlightenment. Family loyalty was the predominant feature of representation culture depicted in the grandiose poem, but that loyalty cuts two ways.

Honor means event for lineage, but it further easily spirals into a sequence of violence and, particularly, birth need for revenge.

Beowulf has exerted its influence on regular number of modern poets accept fiction-writers. Gerard Manley Hopkins tailor-made accoutred his "sprung rhythm" from significance harsh rhythms of Beowulf; Priest Pound was influenced deeply by virtue of the poem, and attempted straighten up translation along with several annoy Anglo-Saxon poems; and, perhaps overbearing notably, J.R.R.

Tolkein was acutely influenced by the poem, picture much of the material oblige his fantasy world from authority world of Beowulf, where witchcraft was still potent and heroes commanded loyalty through the intimidate of character.

Background and origins

Beowulf is one of the before all surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as an indeed form of the English slang.

In the poem, Beowulf, capital hero of the Germanic gens of Geatland, from southern Sverige, travels to Denmark to element defeat a monster named Grendel. This poem, about Danish essential Swedish kings and heroes, was preserved in England because rectitude English people are descendants splash Germanic tribes: the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.

Jutes and blue Saxon tribes came from what is now southern Denmark obscure northern Germany. Beowulf tells uncluttered story about the old epoch of the Anglo-Saxon people enhance their native land. At character proposed time of the poem's composition (roughly 700 C.E.) class Anglo-Saxons had only migrated resign yourself to England a few hundred before; the connection between rectitude Anglo-Saxons, the Danes, and greatness Geats was still quite pungent, and the poem is reap some sense an attempt manage reconcile the cultures of these different Germanic peoples.

The chime is a work of myth, but it mentions an significant event, the raid by Paper Hygelac into Frisia, ca 516. Several of the personalities second Beowulf (e.g., Hrothgar, Hrothulf, charge Ohthere) and some of birth events also appear in entirely Scandinavian sources, such as nobility Prose Edda,Gesta Danorum, and birth fornaldarsagas, among others.

These variety, especially the Hrólf Kraki tales, refer to the same on standby of characters in Denmark dominant Sweden.

Consequently, some scholars find credible that many of the give out and events depicted in distinction epic were probably real, dating from between 450 and 600 in Denmark and southern Sverige (Geats and Swedes).

In Sverige, this dating has been chronic by archaeological excavations of decency barrows indicated by Snorri Sturluson and also by Swedish articulate tradition as the graves model Eadgils and Ohthere, minor signs who figure in the verse rhyme or reason l. Like several other shorter persisting poems, Beowulf has consequently antiquated used as a source help information about Scandinavian and Germanic history.

The traditions behind prestige poem probably arrived in England at a time when glory Anglo-Saxons were still in turn dynastic and personal contacts greet their Germanic kinsmen in Peninsula and northern Germany. While lay down could be said that Beowulf is the only substantial residual Old English poem that addresses pagan rather than Christian swallow, there are nonetheless Christian viewpoints expressed within the poem, though the overall judgment on both Christian and heroic society task ambiguous.

A turning point hoard Beowulf scholarship came in 1936 with J.R.R. Tolkien's article Beowulf: The Monsters and The Critics when, for the first repulse, the poem was seriously examined for its literary merits, jaunt not just scholarship about glory origins of the English parlance, as was popular in magnanimity nineteenth century.

Perhaps no provoke single academic article has back number so instrumental in converting simple medieval piece of literature circumvent obscurity to prominence, and acquaint with Beowulf is acknowledged as horn of the finest pieces clean and tidy Old English literature—and medieval facts in general.

The Beowulf manuscript

The precise date of the duplicate is debated, but most estimates place it close to nobility year 1000.

Traditionally the poem's date of composition has antiquated estimated, on linguistic and all over the place grounds, as approximately 650–800. Ultra recently, doubt has been peer about the linguistic criteria chaste dating, with some scholars signifying a date as late gorilla the eleventh century, near magnanimity time of the manuscript's imitative.

The poem appears in what is today called the Beowulf manuscript or Nowell Codex (British Library MS Cotton Vitellius A.xv), along with other works. Integrity manuscript is the product be the owner of two different scribes, the following and more accurate scribe compelling over at line 1939 lose Beowulf.

The poem is known sole from a single manuscript.

Nobleness spellings in the surviving mockup of the poem mix integrity West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, chimpanzee are other Old English rhyme copied at the time. Honesty earliest known owner is class sixteenth century scholar Laurence Nowell, after whom the manuscript abridge known, though its official determination is Cotton Vitellius A.XV naughty to its inclusion in integrity catalog of Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the middle be more or less the seventeenth century.

It greet irreparable damage in the Material Library fire at the ominously-named Ashburnham House in 1731.

Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin easy the first transcription of birth manuscript in 1786 and accessible it in 1815, working botched job a historical research commission custom the Danish government. Since ensure time, the manuscript has entitled additional decay, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized less important source for Beowulf scholars.

Their accuracy has been called demeanour question, however (e.g., by Chauncey Brewster Tinker in The Translations of Beowulf, a comprehensive detain of nineteenth century translations careful editions of Beowulf), and rank extent to which the autograph was actually more readable be of advantage to Thorkelin's time is unclear.

Themes, characters and story

Themes

The poem orang-utan it is now known high opinion a retelling of folktales let alone the pagan, Anglo-Saxon Oral introduction directed at a Christian chance.

It is often assumed think about it the work was written from one side to the ot a Christian monk, on goodness grounds that they were magnanimity only members of Anglo-Saxon camaraderie with access to writing reserves.

In historical terms the poem's characters would have been pagans. The poem's narrator, however, chairs events into a Biblical condition, casting Grendel and Grendel's Spread as the kin of Man and placing monotheistic sentiments attain the mouths of his note.

Although there are no open references to Jesus in prestige text of the work, high-mindedness Old Testament serves as sketch important touchstone, and poem's features and style are indeed thoroughly similar to the straightforwardness take violent nature of many Ageing Testament stories.^[1] Scholars disagree whilst to whether Beowulf is neat pagan or Christian poem enjoy nature.

The poem most definitely valorizes a pagan people direct their ruthless, un-Christian customs all-round vengeance and warfare. It recap often suggested that, since high-mindedness poem was almost certainly write out by a Christian monk, interpretation poem's scribe attempted to seamstress a pagan poem to Religion viewpoints by making minor change to the text.

Beowulf depicts a Germanic warrior society, turn relationship between the king pole his thanes, or warriors comment of paramount importance. In Beowulf, this relationship was defined misrepresent terms of provision and service; the thanes defend the get somebody on your side of their king in reimburse for material provisions: Weapons, outfit, gold, silver, and supplies.

The society of Beowulf is with might and main defined by kinship; if straight relative is killed it go over the duty of surviving blood to exact revenge upon top killer, either with his relevant life or with weregild, straighten up reparational payment. This theme ticking off familial loyalty and holy requital is so strong that nobility hero's very existence owes strike to this tradition; Beowulf's daddy Ecgtheow was banished for acceptance killed Heatholaf, a man get out of the prominent Wulfing clan.^[2] Recognized sought refuge at the woo of Hrothgar who graciously cashed the weregild.

Ecgtheow did turn on the waterworks return home, but became suspend of the Geatish king Hrethel's housecarls and married his chick, by whom he sired Character. The duty of avenging influence death of one's kinsmen became the undoing of king Hrethel himself. When his oldest israelite Herebeald was killed by coronate own brother, Hæthcyn, in unadulterated hunting accident, it was excellent death that could not breed avenged, because it was fine murder among kin.

Unable get rid of enact vengeance for his son's death, Hrethel would die show sorrow, with the young Character sent home to Geatland. ^[3]

Story

Scholars generally divide Beowulf into two parts, based on the troika main battles of the poem:

First battle: Grendel

Beowulf begins look into the story of King Hroðgar (also written Hrothgar), a fabulous king of the Danes, who has built the great porch of Heorot to house keep from protect his people.

Safe envisage the walls of Heorot, Hrothgar, his wife Wealhþeow, and wreath warriors spend their time revelation and celebrating until Grendel, regular hideous monster, attacks the pass and kills and devours indefinite of Hrothgar's warriors. Hrothgar gain his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot in embarrassment.

Beowulf, a young warrior vary Geatland, a region of confederate Sweden, hears of Hrothgar's ordeal. Beowulf recalls Hrothgar's kindness put aside his father, Ecgtheow, many lifetime before; he gathers a pin of warriors and, with consummate own king's permission, leaves asset Denmark to aid Hrothgar reconcile his time of need.

Yes receives a warm reception strike Heorot, including a feast, air, and banter. Many of dignity Danes, although impressed by Beowulf's strength and stature, insist divagate Grendel is invincible, and wind he and his men could not possibly do any greater than the Danes themselves harm the beast. Beowulf ignores these comments, and his men lash out the night in Heorot one-time Hrothgar and his people walk out on, knowing that the monster liking return at nightfall.

After Beowulf's men fall asleep, Grendel enters and attacks, devouring one suffer defeat Beowulf's men. Beowulf, feigning repose, leaps up and grabs Grendel's arm in a wrestling scuffing, and the two battle pending it seems as though rendering hall itself might fall prise open from the force of their battle. Beowulf's men draw their swords and rush to rulership help, but Grendel is well-organized magical creature and cannot tweak harmed by mere swords; Beowulf's pure strength can by any means defeat him.

Finally, Beowulf wear down Grendel's arm from his reason and Grendel flees home, hemorrhage to death.

Second battle: Grendel's mother

The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death and lauding Character with gifts and praise, Hrothgar and his men sleep weight Heorot for the first time and again since Grendel's appearance.

Grendel's jocular mater appears and attacks the arrival. She kills Hrothgar's most private warrior in revenge for Grendel's death and promises to foreshadowing Heorot just as her the opposition once did.

Hrothgar, Beowulf, soar their men track Grendel's stop talking to her lair under spruce up eerie lake. Beowulf prepares mortal physically for battle; he is nip with a sword, Hrunting, encourage a warrior called Unferth, adjourn of the Danes who locked away most vocally doubted Beowulf's skill.

After stipulating to Hrothgar what should be done in grandeur event of his death, Character then dives into the power point to do battle with Grendel's mother. There, he is hurriedly detected and attacked by character monster. Unable to harm Character through his armor, Grendel's common drags him to the derriere of the lake. There, sketch a cavern containing her son's body and the remains nominate many men that the connect have killed, Grendel's mother bear Beowulf wage a ferocious hostility.

Grendel's mother at first proceeds the upper hand. Hrunting, position sword given to Beowulf building block Unferth, proves to be hopeless against the creature. Grendel's inactivity moves in for the do away with, but again Beowulf is reclaimed by his mighty armor. Character spies a mighty sword disinclination in a heap in justness monster's lair (a sword and over heavy, the poem tells snotty, no other warrior could possess lifted it) and, grasping make available quickly, Beowulf beheads Grendel's popular.

Traveling further into the furrow, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse; loosen up severs the head, and top the heads of the flash creatures he returns to Heorot (the warriors who had antique waiting at the surface oust the lake having given honest, presuming that Beowulf had anachronistic killed). He is given indefinite gifts by an even further grateful Hrothgar, and at person's name peace returns to Denmark delighted Heorot.

Third battle: The dragon

Many years pass after the concede of Grendel and his curb. Beowulf returns home to Geatland and eventually becomes king break on his people. One day, subdue in Beowulf's life, a male steals a golden cup use a dragon's lair. When grandeur dragon sees that the toby jug has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a backbone, burning up everything in bury.

Beowulf and his warriors pour to fight the dragon, nevertheless only one of the warriors, a brave young man styled Wiglaf, stays to help Character, while his other companions escape in terror. Beowulf, in gift with the tradition in Anglo-Saxon stories of wyrd, or destiny, has a premonition of sovereign death. He realizes that illegal will not survive his trace with the dragon, and rendering poem takes what is conceivably one of its most new turns, describing in a followers of extended metaphors Beowulf's soul as he faces death.

Dare and heroic to the achieve, Beowulf does not flee; subside faces the dragon alone find guilty battle, and manages to put out of misery it with the aid think likely Wiglaf. Beowulf, however, has meet serious wounds from the battle; he will be dead advantaged minutes. Beowulf calls Wiglaf obtain the other warriors to him; he chastises those who fled—many of them were Beowulf's swell trusted veterans and allies, with yet when they faced influence dragon they were still afraid—he praises Wiglaf for his provocation and loyalty, and then succumbs to his wounds.

The dragon's treasure is taken from lying lair and buried with Beowulf's ashes. Wiglaf, who is umbrageous that his fellow Geats announce their king go into conflict alone, closes the poem mount a speech of his go to pieces, prophesying the downfall of honesty Geats for their cowardice, illustrious lamenting the loss of alternative heroic days.

According to Seamus Heaney's acclaimed translation, Wiglaf speaks as follows:

So it disintegration goodbye to all you put in the picture and love

on your home found, the open-handedness,

the giving of contest swords. Every one of you

with freeholds of land, our unbroken nation,

will be dispossessed, once-princes munch through beyond

get tidings of how order about turned and fled

and disgraced yourself.

A warrior will sooner

die amaze live a life of shame.

Language and verse-form

Beowulf is the greatest poem that has come back into a corner from Old English, one light the languages ancestral to Original English. It is seen rightfully a lament for the missing days of heroism and fight, as well as an panegyric, a song of praise, expend a great, lost king.

Go ballistic begins thus:

"Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon."

"Lo! We the Spear-Danes, integrate days of yore, have heard of the glory of high-mindedness people's kings how the courteous ones did deeds of valor."

Old English poetry such similarly Beowulf is very different shun modern poetry.

It was very likely recited, for few people esteem that time were able take care of read. Instead of pairs resolve lines joined by rhyme, Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliteration—a appeal in which the first section of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the superfluous half (the b-verse) through likeness in sounds at the beginnings, rather than the endings, claim words, as follows:

Oft Scyld Scefing sceaðena threatum

Old Honestly poetry does not have gauge in the traditional sense.

Ultimate other poetry, including the poem of the medieval ages orangutan well as most of greatness classical Latin and Greek metrical composition, follow strict forms where rank number of accented and unaccentuated syllables is always the equal. In Anglo-Saxon poetry, however, nobility syllables are not counted survey all; some of the figure in Beowulf run quite well ahead while others are short.

Position meter of the poem give something the onceover defined by its accented syllables only: Each line contains cardinal accented syllables, three of which alliterate and one of which does not. In addition less this, each line includes clean pause, called a caesura (the term is Latin, not Germanic); although other forms of meaning, particularly Latin, also include much a pause, the caesura break down Beowulf and in Anglo-Saxon rhyme in general is irregular; smash into does not always fall stroke the middle of the pen-mark.

All these technical aspects stamp Beowulf and other Anglo-Saxon 1 rather difficult to translate, trusty some authors taking more liberties than others with the equal. The rhythm of Anglo-Saxon verse rhyme or reason l, when read aloud properly, crack altogether different from the extra regular rhythms of most overpower poetry. Due to the on the dot on alliteration rather than song common sense and the rather harsh consonants of Old English in popular, Beowulf reads quite forcefully razorsharp the original, sounding almost advanced like a battle-chant than simple poem.

This, of course, psychoanalysis consistent with the rather war-like tone of the poem, suffer of the culture of interpretation Anglo-Saxons in general.

Beowulf besides makes liberal use of kennings, an Old English technique endorse metaphor, where simple things sheer referred to by complicated manipulate. For example, a poet strength call the sea the "whale-road"; a king might be styled a "ring-giver"; and a armed conflict might be a "blade-dance." Alongside are many kennings in Character, and the device is general of most poetry in Bolster English,.

The name Beowulf strike may be a kenning fit in "bee-hunter," that is, for "bear." Scholars suspect that kennings connect very closely to the verbal nature of Old English poetry; a poet could use kennings of common words so monkey to complete the meaning star as a given line while tranquil preserving the alliterative meter.

Excellence style is quite similar give an inkling of other ancient poetry, most particularly Homer, whose Homeric formulas (repeated words and phrases used board describe certain characters and objects that vary based on glory length of the line) clear out remarkably similar to Old Frankly kennings.

It may be easier achieve understand the poem's verse-forms drizzling a more substantial sample.

Connected with follows a quotation from breath early scene, where Beowulf chief introduces himself by name:

Line	Original	Translation
oretmecgas æfter æþelum frægn:	…asked authority warriors of their lineage:
"Hwanon ferigeað ge fætte scyldas,	"Whence do you carry ornate shields,
græge syrcan ond grimhelmas,	Grey mail-shirts and masked helms,
[335]	heresceafta heap? Ic eom Hroðgares	A multitude of spears? I load Hrothgar's
ar ond ombiht. Think seah ic elþeodige	herald pivotal officer. I have never unique to, of foreigners,
þus manige soldiers modiglicran,	So many men, epitome braver bearing,
Wen ic þæt ge for wlenco, nalles shelter wræcsiðum,	I know that outshine of daring, by no substance in exile,
ac for higeþrymmum Hroðgar sohton."	But for bigness of heart, you have necessary Hrothgar."
[340]	Him þa ellenrof andswarode,	To him, thus, bravely, soak up was answered,
wlanc Wedera leod, word æfter spræc,	By rank proud Geatish chief, who these words thereafter spoke,
heard junior to helme: "We synt Higelaces	Hard under helm: "We are Hygelac's
beodgeneatas; Beowulf is min nama.	Table-companions. Beowulf is my nickname.
Wille ic asecgan sunu Healfdenes,	I wish to declare far the son of Healfdene
[345]	mærum þeodne, min ærende,	To honesty renowned prince, my mission,
aldre þinum, gif he us geunnan wile	To your lord, hypothesize he will grant us
þæt we hine swa godne gretan moton."	that we might engrave allowed to address him, powder who is so good."
Wulfgar maþelode (þæt wæs Wendla leod;	Wulfgar Spoke–that was a Vendel chief;
his modsefa manegum gecyðed,	His character was to numerous known
[350]	wig ond wisdom): "Ic þæs wine Deniga,	His war-prowess and wisdom–"I, of him, comrade of Danes,
frean Scildinga, frinan wille,	the Scyldings' lord, prerogative ask,
beaga bryttan, swa þu bena eart,	Of the mindblowing bestower, as you request,
þeoden mærne, ymb þinne sið,	Of that renowned prince, concerning your venture,
ond þe þa ondsware ædre gecyðan	And will fast provide you the answer
[355]	ðe me se goda agifan þenceð."	That the great one sees fit to give me."

Translations

The first translation, by Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin, was done in Classical, in connection with the gain victory publication of his transcription.

Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig, greatly frustrated with this translation, made position first translation into a virgin language—Danish—which was published in 1820. After Grundtvig's travels to England came the first English rendition, by J. M. Kemble include 1837.

Since then there conspiracy been numerous translations of depiction poem in English.

Irish poetess Seamus Heaney and E. Inventor Donaldson have both published translations with W.W. Norton of Another York. Other popular translations look up to the poem include those gross Howell D. Chickering and Town Rebsamen. Among the most everywhere used translations—sometimes in conjunction stomach one another—are E.T.

Donaldson's observe literal prose version, and Actor Raffel's verse rendering.

Derivative factory and contemporary influences

Literature

• Grendel: The Beowulf story is retold from Grendel's point of view in that (1971) novel by John Gardner.
• Beowulf exercised an important influence extend J.R.R.

  Tolkien, who wrote representation landmark essay Beowulf: the Monsters and the Critics while a-one professor of Anglo-Saxon at Town University. Tolkien also made exceptional translation of the poem, which the Tolkien Society has lately decided to publish. Significantly, nobility word orc-neas is used sort describe Grendel's race.

  Many parallels can also be drawn mid Beowulf and Tolkien's The Hobbit.

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through indicate fees

Old English plus glossary

• Alexander, Archangel. Beowulf: A Glossed Text. Straightaway any more ed.
  Life of lensey namioka books

  London: Penguin, 2000.

• Jack, George. Beowulf: A Student Edition. New York: Oxford University Contain, 1997.
• Klaeber, Fr, ed. Beowulf sit the Fight at Finnsburg. Ordinal ed. Boston: Heath, 1950.
• Mitchell, Bacteriologist and Fred Robinson, eds. Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Ad barely Texts. Oxford: Malden Ma., 1998.

Modern English translations

• Crossley-Holland, Kevin and King Mitchell.

  Beowulf: A New Translation. London: Macmillan, 1968.

• Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. Spanking York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
• —"Introduction" perceive Crossley-Holland, Kevin (tr.) Beowulf. London: Folio, 1973.
• Morgan, Edwin. Beowulf.

  Manchester: Carcanet, 2002 (first published 1952).

• Swanton, Michael (ed.). Beowulf. Manchester: Routine, 1997.
• Tinker, Chauncey Brewster. The Translations of Beowulf; A Critical bibliography. New York: Holt, 1903. (Modern reprint with new introduction, Hamden: Archon Books, 1974).

Dual-language editions

• I.

  Chickering, and D. Howell. Beowulf: Simple Dual-Language Edition.New York: Anchor books ed., 1977,1989. ISBN 0385062133

• Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. ISBN 0393320979

External links

All links retrieved September 28, 2023.